Monday, September 30, 2019

Erving Goffman And His Legacy To The Modern Sociology Essay

Human beings are stage performers and human life is centered on performing our culturally defined fronts (Goffman, Erving, 1959 p. 22). Initially found himself working with the National Film Board in Ottawa from1943 to 1944, young Goffman discovered his special interest in sociology (Manning, Philip 1992, p. 53). Erving was the son of a shopkeeper named Max and Anna, a plain housewife. Erving’s parents are Jewish nationals but were driven by fate to Canada in 1897 when the Ukrainians were forced to evacuate to run away from the violence of the First World War. Born on June 11, 1922 in Manville, Alberta, Erving has the natural inclination for natural sciences, which was probably enhanced, or shall we say suggested by his decision to attend St. John Technical High School in Dauphin. Raised from a poor family of Ukrainian immigrants, his family can only afford to send him to the University of Manitoba to pursue an undergraduate degree in Chemistry. Although his biography did not expressly revealed relevant information, this writer speculates that his earnings with his temporary work in the National Film Board could have been one of his tickets which gave him an access to the University of Toronto to pursue his now increasing interests and sociology and anthropology. After graduating in 1945, Goffman went to graduate school at the University of Chicago where he, according to Manning, had taken â€Å"numerous courses† (Manning, Philip 1992, p. 99). Nonetheless, he has completed his graduate studies in 1949. His frustration with the results of his quantitative analysis of his mater’s thesis could have been one of the reasons, if there be anything else, for Erving to use employ qualitative analysis and reasoning for his works. According to Manning’s narration, Goffman â€Å"failed† to use the quantitative analysis method called Thematic Apperception Test (G. Smith, 1999 in Manning, Philip). Erving’s thesis was then about quantitatively analyzing the responses of the middle class women in Chicago over the famous radio soap opera entitled, â€Å"Big Sister†. Goffman immediately pursued his doctorate studies at the University of Chicago wherein he studied the life in the Island of Unst, a small community also known as â€Å"Dixon† (P. Manning). He focused his dissertation on the social interaction of the people in the small island where he stayed from 1949 to 1951. Instead of returning to Chicago, Goffman flew to Parish and returned to Chicago to get married. There are writers’ observations that say that Goffman gained his initial prominence in the community not as sociologist but as poor boy who radically transformed into a wealthy individual. As Manning noted, â€Å"Through both education and marriage, he was now part of an intellectual and economic elite. † This writer finds it important to look into the background of Goffman’s wife, Angelica Choate because this woman may have also played an important role in Goffman’s transformation to elite life. Choate was from elite American family who has connections with media companies. Choate was just 23 when she get married with Goffman whom she met at the University of Chicago. The two just got one child, Tom who was born in 1953. Meanwhile, Goffman completed his doctorate studies at the University of Chicago in 1949 and 1953 in sociology and social anthropology respectively (Blackwood, Diane B. 1997). Like all other theorists, sociologists or scientists, Goffman was never an exemption to criticisms. I would say that he has equally gained appreciation and criticisms for every work he had accomplished. There is one thing that one critique has noted of Goffman: he never named any of his theories, which is unusual in the field (Schweingruber 1994). One observer of Goffman also stressed that Erving was one kind of writer who never cites his influences (Miller, Dan E. ). This then suggests that Goffman really would want to be noticed or recognized as an original writer and of course a sociologist who developed his own and original theories. Goffman’s famous book entitled â€Å"Asylums† which was published in 1961 might have been conceived when he worked at the Saint Elizabeth’s Hospital at the time Goffman and his family moved to Washington D. C.  Three years after working with sociological studies funded by the National Institute of Mental Health, Goffman then secured work at the University of California in Berkeley on January 1958 (D. Blackwood, 1997). After another three years, Goffman’s credentials might have been recognized by the academy and was then promoted as a full professor at the said University. It is also safe to assume that his book Asylums had helped him get the said position after it was published a year before his promotion. In just a decade, that is from 1959-1969, Goffman’s academic achievements were already worth noting in the history of sociology after publishing seven remarkable books (Burns, Thomas 1992, p. 81). If we are to look into the other side of Goffman’s life, we will see that he was not at all focused on writing books and like other intellectuals, the sociologist also had other leisure activities that he probably had loved as much as he loved his career. Historical data revealed that Goffman was also in loved with antiques and had been addicted to playing blackjack and poker. What is interesting in these revelations is that these addictions did not at all paint a bad color on his reputation as sociologist. In fact, these had opened the opportunity for Goffman to enter and analyze the world of the gamblers. Performing regularly as a blackjack dealer at the Station Plaza Casio in Las Vegas, Erving, later promoted as a Pit Boss, it turned out that he had seriously considered to do an ethnographic work and completed a research project on the social life of gamblers. It was just sad to know that none of his works relative to this area was published. It was not all however well and good for Goffman. Behind his success in his career, he had experienced a tragic end of his wife’s life when the latter killed herself in 1964. It was after this event that Goffman’s tragic life behind his success was revealed especially his pains in taking care of his mentally-ill wife. All of his pains, frustrations and bitterness on the death of his beloved wife have been reflected in his book entitled â€Å"The Insanity of Place† which was published five years after the death of his wife. At the time he was probably recovering from losing his wife, Goffman spent time working at the Harvard Center for International Affairs with Thomas Schelling from 1966. Two years after, he had to resign from the University of Berkeley as a professor. In 1968 he was appointed as the Benjamin Franklin Chair in Sociology and Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania. Because his appointment was opposed by the faculty of the sociology department of the said institution, he was transferred to the office of the Anthropological Museum where he enjoyed working. While working at the Museum, Erving had productive time as evidenced by several, and well-noted books were published in his name. In 1969, he published Strategic Interaction with his other two papers in game theory, Relations in Public in 1971, Frame Analysis in 1974, Gender Advertisements in 1979 and Forms of Talk in 1981. After having his daughter Alice with his new wife Gillian Sankoff whom he married in 1981, Erving died of stomach cancer on November 20, 1982. At age 60, Goffman could have written and published more books should he not had cancer. In fact he was just been elected as the President of the American Sociological Association on the year of his death. He was not able to deliver his presidential address which he prepared for several weeks. Nonetheless, his draft was read at the annual meeting of the said organization which he had entitled â€Å"The Interaction Order. † One of the most controversial works of Goffman was his â€Å"Gender Advertisements† where most critics regarded it as a picture gallery and a magazine rather than a book. With about 500 advertising and news photographs, I would have to personally agree with them. For others however, it is unique and distinctive sociological work that â€Å"represents a rare and exemplary instance of an empirical study which treats photographic materials as data, worthy of analysis in their own right, and not merely a handy illustrative resource intended only to vivify the serious business of analysis accomplished by the written text† (Ball & Smith, 1992). Gender Advertisements is actually album-sized book, with 56 of its 84 pages contains sets of photographs arranged in a way that they are supposed to be read if it they are in magazines and where each set has a commentary. First published in the United Kingdom, Gender Advertisements gained wide controversy with its cover â€Å"featuring two female models posed in a manner contrived to be alluring to the male gaze† (V. Gornick, 1979, p. 18). Other critics regarded it as an example of â€Å"the use of women as sex-objects to promote the sale and Goffman made use of some useful hints in this study of the advertiser’s trade† (P. Hunt, 1980, p. 443). Despite this, I regarded the book, although it did not look like based on its size and bulk picture contents, as something worth an objective analysis of what it had to say about human life. Gender Advertisements had in its own right established its purpose of revealing the realities of advertising trade and that those exploited pictures show evidences of gender role stereotyping. What could have been the reasons for its gained controversy are the interests of those in the advertising trade in using such as a communicative process. One of the bad realities in the world is that once you got something done that touches the interests, or ego of the others, you will surely have to face and endure the pains of skepticism because what it more painful is to hear the truth. For Goffman, â€Å"the differential treatment of males and females is often justified by folk beliefs which presume some essential biological differences between the sexes† (Gornick, p. 55). He however stressed that biology has nothing to do or at least cannot explain nor determine social practices. He sees biological and natural consequences relative to the differences between male and female as mere excuses for honoring and producing such differences. In his book â€Å"Behavior in Public Places† published in 1963, Goffman established the three types of co-presence namely: gathering, situation and social occasion. Goffman regarded â€Å"gathering† as the coming together of two or more persons while â€Å"situation† happens when there the mutual monitoring of the persons involved. On the other hand, a â€Å"social occasion† takes place when there is the presence of the props or special equipment and is bounded by time and space. From here, we can already see how Goffman’ background in theatre arts had influenced his work and they way he sees human existence. Meanwhile, the significance of such types of co-presence identified by Goffman is that they each present a â€Å"pattern of communication traffic order† which he termed as â€Å"situational properties† (Goffman, Erving 1963, p. 24). In all these situations, Goffman saw the necessity of interaction, either as â€Å"focused on unfocused† wherein people read each other through body idiom and perceived involvement (Goffman, p. 14). He also recognized the presence of the dominant and subordinate groups involved in such interactions and the attention one draws against the other. These are actually simple observations of the daily routine of people yet these simple interactions are realities of life that only few like Goffman paid attention to. Moreover these simple observations are realities from which we can base our analysis of more complex situations. In short, Goffman has done the simple and the basic for us to have a building block to understand the more complicated ones. Probably a product of his working experience with Saint Elizabeth’s Hospital, Asylum was one of Goffman’s still controversial works. It was regarded as â€Å"highly unusual: it provides very little detailed information about the hospital; rather it conveys a ‘tone of life’ (Fine and Martin 1990, p. 93). This book featured the â€Å"moral career of the mental patient† because it contained an analysis of his life as a pre-patient, an in-patient and his being an ex-patient† (Ibid, p. 89). According to Goffman, a mental patient’s life begins with the â€Å"betrayal funnel† wherein the family and the people he is most closed with conspire against him by questioning his actions. These people then decide to have the patient to be housed in the mental institution where everything in their daily lives will be regulated and any violation of such rules will be punished. Those whom the psychiatrists have seen good behavior will be transferred to the ward system indicating an improvement. Goffman’s observation that mental institutions are â€Å"forcing houses† for changing people can be justifiable based on the mentioned processes. They are actually being forced to changes because primarily they are subject to rules and regulations of the institution thereby losing their innate freedom to decide for themselves. However, I would argue that these people are subjected to such rules and with their state of mind, they cannot obviously decide for themselves, or if they can, it would not likely be good for them. The book was controversial because Goffman attacked the procedures psychiatrists undergo in treating the mental patients that such procedures are considered by Goffman as a mere â€Å"misunderstanding† of the patients’ behaviors which psychiatrists regarded as evidences of mental illness (Manning, Philip 1992, p. 183). The same concepts and theories lay in his book Stigma which was published in 1963. Stigma, according to Goffman is a ‘deeply discrediting’ attribute in the context of a set of relationships (Goffman, 1963 p. 3). In this book, he has identified three types of stigma as abominations of the body, blemishes of character and tribal stigma (ibid, p. 4). In his analysis, stigmatized persons try to make use of techniques in controlling information. What is bad about it is that these techniques are discrediting and undisclosed and therefore can cause damage to the person. Such damaging information, according to Goffman is â€Å"critical for three aspects of our identity: the ‘personal’, the ‘social’ and the ‘ego’ (ibid, p. 57). Goffman defined â€Å"personal identity as those attributes that make us unique with that of the others while our social identity is what others understand about us, identified by the characteristics of the group by which we belong. On the other hand, our ego identity refers to what we think about ourselves (Ibid, p. 69). In the Presentation of Self in Everyday Life published in 1959, Goffman’s theatre arts engagement is more evident wherein he lay out six general themes of human beings’ face-to-face interaction. The central themes in the book are: the performance, the team, the region, discrepant roles, communication out of character and the impression management (Barnhart, Adam, 1994). In this book, Goffman considered human beings as â€Å"performers enacting rehearsed lines and roles in places that are carefully constructed in order to maximize the potential for deception† (Blackwood, Diane B. 997). Goffman’s ten year effort of writing Frame Analysis is worth the sweat as it was considered his crowning achievement when published in 1974 (Manning, Philip 1992, p. 121). In this book, Erving plotted human experiences into frames wherein an organizational experience could have been a joke, a lesson, an invitation or a warning. Goffman also emphasized that in human experience, actions which he called frames can be misleading since not all what people sees as for example a fight can only in fact a joke, or vice versa. In short, there are actions that can only be considered as fabrications. The same theme as with the Frame Analysis, Goffman published another book entitled â€Å"Forms of Talk† in 1981. It has five essays that convey only one theme: the footing of talk which is portrayed or displayed by the person during his course of conversation with others. In Frame Analysis, Goffman has integrated the concepts of individual and social behavior while analyzing the interaction of both. As one writer saw this work as something that has a direct correlation with Perceptual Control Theory because of the presence of concepts of â€Å"acts† although Goffman considered them as â€Å"guided doings† (Miller, Dan E. ). Miller stressed that Goffman wanted to emphasize the fact that the actions of a person are guided by their expected or desired results of such actions. â€Å"A serial management of consequentiality is sustained, that is, continuous corrective control, becoming most apparent when action is unexpectedly blocked or deflected and special compensatory effort is required† (Goffman, 1974 p. 2). It is just surprising to know that Goffman insisted on his non-interest in understanding individual behavior rather on social behaviors. However Goffman might have realized that he has to in his statement: â€Å"I assume that the proper study of interaction is not the individual and his psychology †¦ None the less, since it is individual actors who contribute the ultimate materials, it will always be reasonable to ask what general properties they must have if this sort of contribution is to be expected of them† (Goffman 1974, p. 2). One critic of Goffman however argued that â€Å"it takes a self – not necessarily an ethnomethodologist or a sociologist – to see a self† (Travers, Andrew 1997). Travers further argued that it is first important to know the public self before one could fully understand the whole of society. This however makes sense of the issue. According to Travers, it not at all scientific to analyze the self by seeing others and then compare these to his own. In my opinion, it still make sense to compare one’s self to others in order to clearly see what makes him or her different or the same with others. I would say that an assurance of objective evaluation of the self is hard to attain if Travers is suggesting that it does not take an expert (sociologist or ethnomethodologist) to make the analysis. Let us say that I see myself as morally upright because I have compared myself with that of the criminals. But if I am to compare myself with those who does not even take the courage to lie, then I might come up with a different evaluation of myself. The point is, there is subjectivity in comparing oneself to others so it really takes someone who is more qualified to understand what is really going on with the self. Erving Goffman, however controversial his works maybe, had been generally a man worthy of noting in the history of sociology. Although he had undoubtedly, as had been presented in this paper, gained too many criticisms in his ideas and concepts on human experiences, what he had conceptualized and written were realities of life that man has somehow had to accept. Working mostly on typical and everyday human interaction, Goffman was able to present complex analyses of simple events that became bases for others in the same field. We have also observed that his works primarily was influenced by his personal experiences as a boy rose in a poor family, worked hard and became economically and academically successful. His developed interests in theatre arts had him benefited in analyzing facts of life of which he regarded as stage play where human beings are actor and actresses in a stage play with different and distinctive roles. Goffman in his own right has been a successful man in his own field. For those who are in the same field, Goffman had contributed a lot it the development of modern sociological theories which are evidently being used today.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Cohabitation Before Marriage Essay

Does living together before marriage help or hurt relationships? This question has plagued couples for the last few decades, as both the numbers of those living together without being married and the rate of divorce has grown. I think living together before marriage can only help people avoid divorce, as they are given the chance to see what it is like to live with either the specific person, or a person for the first time. This also brings up the questions of why divorce rates are up and whether it has anything to do with living together before marriage. I bring certain prejudices about it, believing that living together before marriage does not negatively impact couples’ ability to stay together after marriage, as I have seen it work many times. In the end, I will attempt to make the connection between the two, if there is one, or explain why people think there may be. SOURCES: Hurley, D. (2005, April 19). Divorce Rate: It’s Not as High as You Think. The New York Times. Divorce Statistics Collection. Retrieved August 9, 2008, from http://www. divorcereform. org/nyt05. html Knadler, J. (2005, December). Is Five Years the New Forever? Cosmopolitan. Vol. 239, Iss. 6; pg. 149-152. Kramer, E. (2004, October). COHABITATION: JUST A PHASE? Psychology Today. Vol. 37, Iss. 5; pg. 28-29. Whether because of the instinct to procreate, emotional desire, or compulsion to follow social norms, human pair-bonding leads often to marriage. Defined as a social institution, religious sacrament, and personal commitment, marriage continues to evolve, growing to include a more relaxed attitude to divorce and the practice of cohabitation before marriage. Both of these subjects have sparked heated debates, with the issue of cohabitation before marriage being the latest movement in the realm of matrimony. While many opponents of cohabitation before marriage cite a lack of core family and moral values that have sanctified union through marriage for millennia, recent studies have shown that cohabitation before marriage is not only increasing in popularity, but may be beneficial compared to marriage first, as evidenced by the increasing divorce rate among married couples, the decrease of overall marriages, and the ever-changing landscape of marriage throughout history. Marriage between a man and a woman has long been the backbone of social cooperation and society itself. Marriage offered greater economic stability, the opportunity to produce heirs, and was often utilized as a tool to strengthen alliances between groups. Marriage echoed the foundational desire for societal regulations and norms, and like society, marriage continuously evolved, redefining itself and its purpose. From the days ancient Mesopotamia to Greece and Rome, marriage was largely a civic obligation. However, the proliferation of polytheistic religions as ultimate moral authorities transformed marriage into an expression of faith. Until the emergence of modern nation-states, most marriages were conducted under one or another religious regime. Starting with the Protestant Reformation, â€Å"most states took over their dominant religion’s marriage laws; debate has ensued ever since whenever a nation deviates from the still powerful religious rules that sanctify marriage† (Miller, 1999). Despite these dogmatic rules, outlawed actions such as unmarried cohabitation and divorce have become commonplace among couples, and the cause and effects are mixed. According to an analysis of new census figures by The New York Times, married couples, whose numbers have been declining for decades as a proportion of American households, have slipped into a minority in the United States. The American Community Survey, released in October by the Census Bureau, found that â€Å"49. 7 percent, or 55. 2 million, of the nation’s 111. 1 million households in 2005 were made up of married couples — with and without children — just shy of a majority and down from more than 52 percent five years earlier† (Hurley, 2005). This trend shows that less and less heterosexual couples are choosing to get married, instead preferring to cohabitate and have children without marriage. Cohabitation can have many important benefits that marriage cannot, even if it comes with no religious sanctification or government protection. Cohabitation before marriage can be for a variety of reasons. Some couples may use it to see if they can live with the person, while others may do it simply out of convenience, and still others may do it for more practical reasons such as to save money. Susan Sassler, a sociology professor at Ohio State University, interviewed undergraduate and graduate students who had been living with a romantic partner for at least three months and asked them why they decided to move in with their partners. Fewer than a third of interviewees reported discussing their ideas for the future before making the move, and even fewer had mentioned marriage in their discussions with their partners; nearly a fifth specifically stated that they weren’t using cohabitation as a trial for marriage, and the most commonly cited reasons for moving in together were â€Å"saving money, convenience and the need for housing† (Kramer, 2004). This study helps show that cohabitation before marriage is not necessarily anything more than a practical move on the part of the couple. Whether or not the couple gets married seems to be secondary to the mutually beneficial arrangement that can allow many young couples to pursue personal and professional goals more easily with the support system offered by such a thing as marriage, with the freedom offered by being single. In the United States, it is widely believed that one in two marriages will end in divorce, so while many couples live together out of sheer practicality, cohabitation may be a good way to avoid the increasing divorce rate. The rate of divorce today is considered to be roughly 43% by the National Center for Health Statistics but was moved back up to around 50% by the Census Bureau in 2002. Most recently, according to the New York Times, it has been revised downward to just over 40%. (Crouch, 2005) This lower figure could be due to the fact that less people are getting married and choosing instead to cohabitate, but it cannot be denied that less people are getting and staying married than ever before. The proliferation of cohabitation before marriage could be for a great number of reasons, including the increasingly fast pace of society, a more cynical view of traditional morality, or even the more evolved view that couples do not have to sanctify their union through religion or law. Studies on successful cohabitation are difficult to perform, and no concrete statistics such as divorce rates offer clear-cut answers to its ultimate success or failure. However, moving past religious and social dogma that often frowns upon cohabitation before marriage, it would seem to be preferential for young couples to do before getting married, and many have. According to Jessie Knadler of Cosmopolitan Magazine, â€Å"many couples today live together before they marry, roughly 70 percent versus less than 5 percent 40 years ago† (Knadler, 2005). While this number suggests that virtually all couples that marry live together first, it also leads to a pitfall that cohabitating couples must avoid, namely seeing marriage as the next logical step in the relationship. As evidenced in the Sassler study, many of these cohabitating couples are doing it out of practical reasons, sharing money, bank accounts, bills, and such; to move this arrangement into marriage without a strong foundation is a risky mistake that ends in divorce nearly half of the time. The casual acceptance of divorce in today’s society seems to offer couples an easy way out whenever they so choose, unlike a few short decades ago when divorce was considered taboo. Divorce ultimately costs not only the couple, but also society as a whole, in legal fees and wasted court time. While breakups are rarely pleasant, they can prevent many of these personal fights from entering the public arena. The success of any marriage, relationship, or partnership depends on the trust and commitment of those who enter into it. Cohabitation can be a good way to lead to marriage, but it takes work and honesty between both partners. If the partners see a future with each other, marriage is the next logical step. However, if they are living together out of convenience, perhaps marriage is a bad idea. And, while marriage continues to evolve and to some degree evaporate, human relationships will always be too complex and diverse to generalize. REFERENCES Crouch, J. (2005). Divorce Rates. Divorce Reform Page. Americans for Divorce. Retrieved August 9, 2008, from http://www. divorcereform. org/rates. html Hurley, D. (2005, April 19). Divorce Rate: It’s Not as High as You Think. The New York Times. Divorce Statistics Collection. Retrieved August 9, 2008, from http://www. divorcereform. org/nyt05. html Knadler, J. (2005, December). Is Five Years the New Forever? Cosmopolitan. Vol. 239, Iss. 6; pg. 149-152. Kramer, E. (2004, October). COHABITATION: JUST A PHASE? Psychology Today. Vol. 37, Iss. 5; pg. 28-29. Miller, M. (1999, March/April). What is Marriage For? : A Conversation with E. J. Graff. UU World Magazine. 37 pars. Retrieved August 9, 2008, from http://www. uua. org/world/0399feat3. html

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Discussion Board Topic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion Board Topic - Assignment Example A reader can interpret the bible easily by understanding the context of the book that is the original and the history setting of the Bible. The method also known as historic-grammatical approach, aids the reader to find the literal meaning of the words based on the understanding of the chronological and cultural settings in which the written words form (Duvall & Hays, 2010). For instance, words in the Old Testament differ from the New Testament in that the New Testament authors were trying to interpret the Old Testament authors in this way it becomes easier for readers to apply what they have read into the present life. Topical preaching is very popular and practical that entails choosing a topic from the Bible and then expanding on the same. This method of preaching is recommended as many topics in the Christian calendar are naturally related to topical preaching for instance, the Youth day, Development day and even the Holy Communion (Duvall & Hays, 2010). However, preachers may violate topical preaching, as there is a temptation to rely heavily on non-Biblical sources, and a high tendency of misusing scriptures from the

Friday, September 27, 2019

Framework for Ethics Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Framework for Ethics - Coursework Example is end, Anandarajan (2002) observed that it is of an importance measure the organization’s structural and ethical behavior through some structured frameworks. It is evident that various organizations employ these models to measure their structural and moral conduct as a way of saving the trust of stakeholders. This can be alluded to the successful ends that these models attain in establishing ethical culture in an organization, steer moral decision making as well as enhancing the overall execution of results (Anandarajan, 2002; Ferrell, Fraedrich & Ferrell, 2013). The scope of this paper is thus limited in the discussion of only two of these frameworks that organization can employ, namely; Balanced Scorecard and the Triple Bottom Line. The component of these framework models would be analyzed in relation to how they can be used to enhance ethics and business performance. Moreover, the paper presents how organization can make use of these models as approaches of driving ethical decision-making as well how organization incorporate the ethical models in the corporate relations. Balanced scorecard model is defined as a multidimensional way of making executive estimations and administration control within a particular organizational structure (Henriques, 2004). In other words, Balanced Score Card (BSC) can be defined as an execution metric which is used mostly in strategic management to improve and advance various internal functions and so their resulting external outcomes (Boatright, 2009). A single most formidable quality of the model is the great emphasis it places on ensuring that performance measures are linked with the activity plans at all levels within a business unit. To further explicate on BSC, Brown (2000) posits two significant approaches to implementing it; centralized and decentralized. Centralized approach is mainly a tool for top management to impart centrally formulated strategies down the organizational administration. On the other hand, a

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Metamorphosis Franz Kafka Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Metamorphosis Franz Kafka - Essay Example ver, the much she takes care of her brother by providing him with food, making his room cozier to adapt in his transformed body as well as trying to keep his shreds of human left in him alive, shows that she is indeed of a caring character. However, her stage in life, as a young adult, demands that she engage in responsibilities such as getting her family and consequently sustaining it. By so doing, she endeavors to generate income to provide for her family. As much of these happen in Grete’s life, she slowly gives up caring for Gregor, with the excuse that she has income generating activities as her priority in order to meet the needs of her family. Dehumanization emerges when she gives up caring for her brother to chase worldly things such as money. This is the chief cause of Gregor’s death as he dies out of starvation. Gregor’s transformation is what creates conflict in the text. It elicits varied responses from those people in his life. There is alienation in the form of the distance that is created between him and them after the transformation. He feels as if in he is caged in a prison of his new body while, on the other hand, his family and friends struggle with feelings of sympathy and revulsion towards Gregor. Gregor’s death resolves the conflict caused by his transformation. The setting plays an important role in the reinforcement of the theme and characterization. Gregor’s bedroom in which he wakes up from a dream and finds himself transformed forms the boundaries of Gregor’s activities. One learns of Gregor’s character through his interaction with much of what is found in this room. Also important in the development of characterization is the entire building that houses the members of Gregor’s family. In communicating the theme of dehumanization, the author employs various literary devices that include symbolism, metaphors, foreshadowing among others. For instance, the picture of the woman in furs which Gregor clings to when things are

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Business management Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business management - Personal Statement Example Currently, I am studying business studies at college and I believe that this will give me fundamental knowledge that will be of great help on my enrolment for a degree course in business management. Additionally, I have been working for Wallis at Debenhams for three years now, which has enabled me to become dynamic and resourceful with interpersonal and negotiation skills, an outstanding team player, open minded and excellent in networking. I have also acquired analytical, managerial and leadership skills among others. I believe that pursuing this course will give me the chance to sharpen these skills further and increase my knowledge in business management. Moreover, some of my hobbies including travelling and reading magazines especially business-related ones help me explore diverse business ventures, boost my interest in business management in addition to keeping me up to date with current affairs in business world. I have no misgivings that this exposure to the field of business will greatly influence my performance in my degree course. My request for a chance to pursue business management is based on my passion to delve into the world of business where I aspire to own and manage my own business. I am looking forward to excel in my degree program and thereafter pursue a Masters degree in business management. My willingness to learn together with my open mind, determination, attention to details as well as my strong will to deliver quality and relevant results will be important assets as I study. With the training and support that I will get from my tutors, I will certainly perform well. I kindly hope that you will consider my application and give me the opportunity to do what I love doing most: serving humanity as a business

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

E-Business Foundation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

E-Business Foundation - Essay Example The main redeeming aspect about Google’s approach has been its innovative approach.Thus, it is seen that all their website projects integrate the latest thinking on design, usage, accessibility, technology and marketing strategy. Google has been serving their customers for over a decade now. They have attributed their success and long life to their quest for making rewarding and long-term relationships with both potential and existing clients it is believed that Google take special interest in the success of their clients and work hand- in- hand to ensure that the product is of high quality that could meet the clients’ goals and objectives. Google has decided to take over YouTube for $1.65 million in stocks. This would spell great opportunities for internet users and content owners throughout the business world. The takeover merges one of the largest and fastest growing online video entertainment businesses with Google's proven proficiency in organizing information and creating new models for advertising on the Internet. The merged companies would focus on providing a better, more comprehensive experience for users interested in uploading, watching and sharing videos, and will offer new opportunities for professional content owners to distribute their work to reach vast new viewers. Next, Google has also received approval from the US Federal regulators to acquire Double Click for $3.1 billion. Google generates revenue from selling text-based ads that appear next to search results.

Monday, September 23, 2019

Case Study on Organisational Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Case Study on Organisational Change - Essay Example Case issues While analysing the given case scenario, it is clear that the takeover of the ‘Star’ by the ‘Iron Cage’ caused the Star to move from a highly profitable company to an underperforming company. The major identified issue is that the business acquisition raised severe challenges to the Star’s innovativeness as the resulted organisational change prevented the company from effectively dealing with experimentation. Undoubtedly, this adverse situation negatively affected the Star’s market competitiveness since thoughtful experimentation and frequent innovations are essential for the sustainability of a chemical company operating in a progressive niche-market. Declining employee loyalty was one of the main reasons for the Star’s failure. According to the author, the business takeover led to the formation of a coercive worksite environment and hence this excessive bureaucracy by Iron Cage top management persuaded Star employees to cha nge their view from â€Å"it is my company† to â€Å"it is just the company I work for† (Grieves, 2004, p.233). In addition, Star employees did not get extensive exposures to demonstrate their creativity due to the parent company’s over-involvement. ... Such a situation adversely affected the formed organisation’s managerial activities and ultimately operational efficiency. The most potential reason for Iron Cage’s break up is that the organisation failed to ensure the active involvement of Star employees. In short, it can be asserted that over-dominance of Iron Cage management over Star employees ended up in the Iron Cage’s break up and sell off. Case study analysis The company’s failure could have been avoided if the Iron Cage had efficiently dealt with the change management subsequent to the Star acquisition. The case study clearly indicates that the Ice Cage management was not thoughtful in integrating two entirely different organisational cultures. The Iron Cage tried to coordinate quality assurance systems and achieve cultural integration by installing a managing director from its own ranks. The organisation did not consider any of the Star’s top executives for this change management process. In addition, the parent company had done nothing proactive in preparing Star employees to adapt to a new organisational environment. The Ice Cage’s business integration strategy was against the business ethics of change. According to Audi (2012, pp.46-50), the idea of business ethics is of greater significance in ensuring an organisation’s sustainability as this concept is a key to tool to achieve employee loyalty and reputation. Similarly, the Iron Cage management did not give any importance to Star employees’ problems and opinions. In contrast, the parent company tried to suppress the ideas and suggestions of Star employees. The case study clearly indicates that Star’s managers were not satisfied with the language of the

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Organizational behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organizational behaviour - Essay Example Passos and Caetano (2005) offer that conflict is absolutely necessary in order to improve team performance and maximize group effectiveness. This viewpoint of the team environment realizes that there will be conflict between group members as a natural element of the group dynamic. However, there are methods available in which group leaders can regulate the way in which conflict is mediated, creating the opportunity for more healthy discussion about the group project. For example, a diverse project team is having issues about specific teams members who are not motivated to succeed, which is hindering the project. Animosity and anger would be the most likely conflict emotions involved in this situation. A competent leader would recognize that these problems exist and either call for a meeting to discuss the groups’ differences or to create a reward system by which to show the unmotivated group that those who perform will be compensated in greater proportion to the unfocused. In this situation, genuine conflict creates the opportunity to discuss issues and build relationships through positive business interactions. Khaneja (2004) supports that conflict can be a healthy part of team activities, suggesting that healthy disagreement should actually be encouraged as a means to build better team problem-solving and group innovation. The project manager or team leader must ask a variety of questions and allowing others to offer recommendations on the project. When recommendations are given, the leader should challenge these assumptions and criticize others in order to spark healthy, competitive debate. The author further proposes that these sessions should continue throughout the duration of the project to keep conflict as a means to get more quality ideas and solutions. Two specific business professionals take a radically different viewpoint on conflict when they state, â€Å"It is a common illusion that an enterprise is one big happy

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Black like me Essay Example for Free

Black like me Essay A middle-aged white man from Mansfield Texas named John Howard Griffin is the main character and author of Black like Me. He was a man deeply committed to the cause of ending racial discrimination. In 1959, Griffin decided to take a pertinently extreme measure just to understand the plight of the black people. He underwent medical treatment to change the color of his skin and temporarily become a black man. Griffin’s experience was funded by George Levitan, the owner of Sepia, a black oriented magazine in return for an article about it. Griffin sets out for New Orleans. He finds a contact- Sterling Williams, an articulate, soft-spoken, and engaging shoe shiner. Along the way, Griffin experiences oppression, hardship, and prejudice. It is impossible to find a job, he is forbidden from ordering a drink at the soda fountain and he wasn’t allowed to use a restroom used by whites. Clerks refuse to cash his checks as well. Griffin travels to Alabama and into the Deep South and Mississippi and finds that the condition is even worse for blacks. He finds their condition alarming. Black communities seem defeated and run down. All day long, the word nigger† seems to echo everywhere he goes. After two months of a depressing life as a Black man, Griffin stops taking his medication and lightens his skin back to its original color. He notices that when he is a white man, whites treat him with respect and blacks treat him with suspicious fear; when he is a black man, blacks teat him with generosity and kindness and whites seem to look at him with contempt and hostility. The article is published in 1960 and he was called to do interviews. The article is published around the world and he receives both congratulatory mails and hateful reprisals. Mansfield consists of many racists so Griffin and his family moved to Mexico in August of that year. Griffin issues a plea for tolerance and understanding between the races so as to avoid the possible outbreak of terrible violence. II. A critique on the book Black like me is more of a memoir rather than a novel; it is an autobiographical memoir in particular. It springs out from the author’s real experiences as well as his personal opinions rather than from mere imaginations or artistic creativity. The book itself stared from a research project. Griffin ostensibly desires to experience hoe it is to be like a black man so that he may understand firsthand the hardships and obstacles that they encounter in their daily lives. The books main theme is racial discrimination. Griffin’s quest for equality and social justice led him to temporarily change his identity from a white man to a black one. This transition is one clear proof to the crucial importance of one’s skin color as a factor in determining one’s position in this world. Griffin writes about the hardships of finding shelter and food as a black man; the difficulties of cashing a check despite the fact that he didn’t change his identity; riding a bus or even just finding a restroom where blacks are allowed to use. Blacks and whites behave differently when in one another’s company. Whites look at blacks with contempt and hostility and blacks treat whites with suspicious fear. This behavior is different however when they are with their groups and just among themselves. They treat each other with respect, kindness and generosity. Neither race has an understanding of the other. Griffin’s Black like Me explores the themes of segregation, racism and the capacity of humans to love their fellowmen. In this novel, there is the presence of men who made a different stand. P. D. East, Sterling Williams, George Levitan, Adele Jackson, and Sam Gandy support Griffins advocacy; A proof that there is some goodness in this world. Black like me is a short book, but considered one of the finest pieces of literature ever produced. The social message of the author’s experience is clearly advocated through the narrative structure of the book. III. 3 incidents that I personally find interesting and why? †¢ When Griffin underwent a medical treatment – the ultraviolet radiation combined with oral medication to darken his skin pigmentation. I find it personally interesting because it is a rare occasion that a person will consider doing the same experiment as Griffin did. He did a pertinently extreme measure just to feel exactly how it is to be like a black man. The medical procedure that Griffin underwent is neither tested nor safe. He experienced pain and other side effects from his exposure to the ultraviolet as well as with the medication. †¢ When Griffin spends the day working on the shoe shine booth together with Williams and Joe and that they only have raccoon meat and rice eaten out of a tin can for their meals. This spells the gap between a white man eating in a luxurious restaurant and a black man who regards having enough to eat, no matter how crude the meal is, as a mark of dignity. †¢ When a white bully follows Griffin around, calling him names and threatening him. This incident only proves the material difference between whites and blacks. This incident portrayed the constant threat of violence, prejudice and oppression. In this particular scenario, he is treated like an animal being chased away just because the color of his ski is black.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Standards To Become A Lecturer Education Essay

Standards To Become A Lecturer Education Essay The assignment will consist of a reflective evaluation of your efforts and the outcomes achieved during the module supported by specific evidence of your graduate job search and career planning activities. The major part of the assignment will focus on Identifying professional standards relevant to your identified career pathway, standards and competences and comparison of skills with the required skills. The assignment will be focusing on career objective and planning for a better and secure future and will help to groom the skills to increase the chances for success in graduate recruitment process. The assignment will also cover some aspects of job portals and career planning for next 3 years. Introduction The day we born our beloved people attach some dreams with us and sometimes those dreams becomes the purpose of our living. Sometimes we create our own missions and vision. The only purpose all this serve at the end is success. Success meaning differs from people to people and nature to nature of the people. Humans work hard today to get a better and secure future. Even no matter how much they struggle, plan still they know the future is uncertain but at least they can try to make their own ways. All humans struggle to have a charming future and success in life (Arthur et al., 1995). According to Kotzà ©. K., Roodt, G., (2005) they work hard, make plans, career developments, all this is to avoid fear, fear of insecurity for the future with better career and profession. Our career and chosen profession depends on our nature. And the day we were born our nature started developing. Since the child sent to school, their race towards better career and towards destiny started. The parent s work hard to for their children to give them all facilities, better education, luxury. The only purpose for all this is to develop a good nature of the child. Parents want a return from child for all the hard work they do for them in term of good grades and positions. According to Arthur et al., (1995) the race continuous and the children become mature enough to decide and chose their own pathways. The basic concept behind studying is to secure future and get into a good profession to earn high and to live a luxury life. The image of education is a ladder towards better career and profession. Everyone has their own goals and preferences but the destiny is same success and better career. While the child studying they have given choice to choose a path towards their career in which they want to involve in future. The children have to plan out their academic pathways according to interest as it is going to the first stair towards their career. According to Lane, and Rajan, (2005) Career is stairs toward success or direction towards our destiny. The children have to test themselves by strengths and weakness they have to select a subject and field to continue their studies. Thats the crucial decision which a child has to take, when they dont have enoug h experience, enough knowledge to choose and differentiate between right and wrong. Some children take their decisions by influence from family, friends, and some took help of the career consultant to decide for them. Chosen profession: The profession I want to choose is teaching and I want to become a lecturer at Oxford University in my relevant field which is brand equity. According to Corrie, S., (2003) Teaching is the most respectful and noble profession. Responsibility of the lecturer is to grow and builds a strong personality of the student and to guide them in better ways. Education is the best way to help the nation to groom their abilities and to successful in future. Teaching should not count as a profession; it is more towards a responsibility to help the people in shaping their career and professional development. Due to inflation, there is a downfall for every industry except the education industry. Every organization is planning to cost-effective but still there are better opportunities for lecturers in the current economic disaster situation (EXETER, 2013). I want to get enough knowledge before starting the lectureship, so I can easily deliver it to my students without any hesitation and fear for lack of knowledge. I have chosen by pathway which is a bit long but it will help me to meet my destiny and have a successful future in it. Soon I am going to enroll in graduate assessment program, after passing it I will find a job in a multinational company to gain professional experience in Branding strategies and increasing the brand equity. I should have enough knowledge of the market and ability in the relevant field before I am going to start lectureship and deliver my knowledge to students (TheEducators, 2012). After getting almost 3-4 years professional experience I will apply for post-graduate program in Oxford University as it is the top university in the world. And my plan is to continue my lectureship in the same university so it will improve my chances to get lectureship if I get admission in the same university. Because during the PhD program, universities do offer to teach or be part of their research team to get some experience and earn at the same time. This will be good for my career and will increases chances to meet my dreams. I want to an expert of my field, and not to just have books knowledge. A professional should know all aspects either good or bad about the relevant field (EXETER, 2013). Oxford University is one of the leading educational institutions around the world. It is known for quality of education and the professional they have produced. Oxford University do offer faculty offers to their best students, and a promising career in research department (TheEducators, 2 012). The reason for choosing the same University for my studies which I have dreamed to work in is to learn their culture as a student and then while being the faculty member help the students which my teachers lacked. The main reason for doing PhD as it makes you stand out from the crowd, as in the world there are just a minor number of people who have plans to do PhD and have done PhD (SIMMONS, 2013). Standards to become a Lecturer According to Jobs.ac.uk, (2013) the basic need to become a lecturer is completely changes now. In earlier ages, the people do not required a post qualification degree but now it is necessary to complete PhD for lectureship. The qualification needs for lecture is to have a good masters degree with good GPA and a PhD in the relevant field. The lecturer will be requiring having some research or teaching experience. Hopefully while doing PhD program, I will be planning for career and working out on ways to maximize the chances of getting a job. The PhD will be the main basis of research experience. PhD took 3-4 years at least to complete and once it completed, it will go a long way to the career ladder. The lecturer should have professional experience which reflects their market knowledge and increase chances to get a lectureship. The lecturer should have enough knowledge which he/she going to deliver to students. And to have enough knowledge, the lecturer should master of their field. Students can ask any question which will come in their mind, and the lecturer is responsible to answer their queries on the spot (EXETER, 2013). According to SIMMONS (2013) Confidence is the most important thing which a lecturer should have. They are going to give presentations to students, answering for their questions and it can incase only if the lecturer is the master of the relevant field. The fear for lack of knowledge can destroy the career as the lecturer will not able to answer the students questions and while assessment of the lecturer, the students will give negative opinions which will not good for lecturer career. Lecturer should positive thinker. Teaching is not only a profession, it more a responsibility which help the student to groom their personality and build a positive character. If the lecturer is not a posi tive thinker then it will create negative impact on the nature of the student. Students are highly influenced by the teacher as they consider them as their mentor. According to (EXETER, 2013) the lecturer should posses the communication skills as their nature of the job is to communicate with students all the time. In class they will be delivering lecturer which is also a part of communication and out of the class; they will be giving counseling to students for betterment. Communication skills are very important in academic or non academic work. The first impression of the personality depends on the way of communication and choice of words. Effective communication not only helps in professional life, but also in personal life to make in a place in the hearts of people. Personal evaluation: The evaluation will be base on my career goal which I have chosen to make a career and way to live a life. The career I have chosen is to become a lecturer in Oxford University. The lectureship requires a person who is well qualified and the master of their field with some relevant experience (TheEducators, 2012). According to Jobs.ac.uk, (2013) the hiring institutions also assess personality of the person and their behaviors. As, far as the qualification and experience is concern, I am in a growing stage to groom my career and shine like a star. I am now enrolled in graduate program in the field of marketing with the majors of brand equity and strategies. After doing my graduation, I am going to enroll in many multinational firms for graduate recruitment process. Hopefully, after I get selected I will start working to gain some professional and market experience as it is the need to enroll in PhD Program. I want to work with Multinational Corporations to groom myself and shape mysel f as per need of market. After gaining 3-4 years experience I will apply for PhD program in Oxford University. The basic need for PhD is to have a good GPA in graduate program and as a good student I have 3.75 CGPA. I want to study in Oxford University on a scholarship and my academic qualification meets the need of it. According to Unimelb, (2013) as, far as the personality and character building is concern. I am a confident, hard-working student who has achieved scholarships several times. Getting a scholarship proves my likeness towards studies and knowledge of my relevant field in which I want to make a career. I am a brilliant and favorite student of my teachers with a positive behavior. My teachers also impress from my communication skills and they recommend me to a lecturer like them in future. As, my teacher are my mentor, I also want to mentor for my students and groom their personality with positive behavior and attitude. I have to analyze the SMART factors or build these factors in me for success in future. I am focus towards my specific career and can access easily as I have a simple personality. My hard work and determination makes things achievable for me and I understand the value of time as it is more important than money. I have a positive realistic approach through which I perceive d things and take decisions (EXETER, 2013). Graduate Recruitment Process According to Unimelb, (2013) the companies come to hire on campus recruitment or hires directly from their offices have the same criteria of choice. The choice criteria are to SMART with good qualification record. I have a good qualification record and a good and positive personality. The recruitment process will start after 6 months. I have decided to check all my courses which I have studied during my program. And I also have to focus on my SMART skills to impress the recruitment team during the interview through my behavior. The SMART skills include being specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, time-based (EXETER, 2013). The action plan will base on two stages first professional development objective and second professional development planning (EXETER, 2013). The Duration decided for each stage is 3 months as the total time remaining in graduate recruitment is 6 months. First stage: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The most important thing is to go to consultant and get advice on career building and planning. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Professional skills à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Review all my course work I have done Second stage: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Skills audit à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Personal development plan à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Monitoring and evaluation In first stage, the goal of the life will develop on the basis of interest, skills and advises from family, friends, and consultant. It is the most important part of the action plan, and it should be base by SMART goal (EXETER, 2013). According to Unimelb, (2013) I should clear about what I want to in my future? Do I have the skills to that? In this part of the career development, I will take advises from consultant and try to develop and include professional skills like, leadership qualities, multi-tasking, occupational standards, and ability to compete. As, the recruitment team can ask academic questions I have to check all my course work during my program to revise and answer their questions with confidence. According to EXETER (2013) in second phase, the planning should make which focusing on how to meet my career goal. In this stage first I will analyze do I posses the skill I need for my selective career or I need to focus on improving those skills by doing SWOT analysis of myself. The SWOT will help me to find my strength and weakness with opportunities and threats. It will help me to convert my weakness into strength and opportunities into strength and remove threats to fill gap between me and the career I have chosen. The second part of this phase will focus on planning to improve skills by utilizing the resources I have. In this part I will plan what to learn and how to learn within the given framework of time. While improving my personality traits I will keep evaluating myself so I can compare difference from the hard work I have done. Professional identity: In today`s world, when the technology is so advanced and companies hire and advertise on internet for vacant positions. According to Jobs.ac.uk, (2013) I have to make profiles on different job portals to search and apply for vacancies which match my skills and qualification background. The profile will consist of my personal and academic qualification with experience if have any. The profile also includes the professional courses and skills which a person possesses so organizations can look into their profiles and test them during the graduate recruitment process. The job portals are as effective as they play the role of an agent between the person who is looking for a job and the company recruiting employees. The job portals give a platform to keep yourself updated about the vacant positions in your interested field. I will create profile on several job portals to increase the span of search for jobs and apply for them. It will increase my chances to get good job in a limited time. According to the LinkedIn, (2013) LinkedIn is a professional site which helps the people to get connected with professional people and get updates from them. Through LinkedIn a person can follow companies to get updates about the new opening and apply on suitable positions. My profile on LinkedIn will contain personal, professional, academic, and skill information which I have. The personal information has my name, address and contact number will mention so the firms can contact me through it. Professional information consists of professional experience and the internship but as I am going to a fresh graduate I have no experience. My academic qualification will be available for employers to look into as my highest level of education is a graduate with majors in brand equity. My academic qualification will contain my college record, years, my results and the courses I have studied. The profile also has information about the professional certificate courses I have done to improve my kn owledge and skills. According to Jobs.ac.uk, (2013) There are so many job portals that have the same process in which the job searcher needs to register them by making a profile which protected through password. As, the profile contain personal and professional information. The more number of job portals I will register myself, the higher the span of search which increases my chances to get a suitable job. These job portals just play the role of communication tool between the job searcher and hiring firm. These portals do not guarantee any employment thats only depends on the skills and qualification of the person applied for the job. Career development plan for 3 years According to SIMMONS (2013) the personal development plan will be focusing mainly on the graduate recruitment process. In development plan, the recruitment job will be the first ladder because my plan is to get an experience of over 4 years than apply for the PhD programs. Current plans will be including gaining as much as experience and learning to grow my skill and knowledge. Career development plan consist on finding a job in the relevant field and then keep evaluating myself to check the learning and the outcomes of hard work and determination. I will try to work in different job roles in my relevant field to get huge knowledge of professional workings. My focus will be on planning to improve skills by utilizing the resources I have. In this phase I will plan what to learn and how to learn within the given framework of time. While improving my personality traits I will keep evaluating myself so I can compare difference from the hard work I have done. Because my long term career objective is to become a lecturer and I need to gain some experience before applying for PhD. At the end of third working year I will apply for the PhD program in Oxford University because it is also a time consuming process and it will take a year to complete the requirement and completion of documents. From savings of the salary I will earn, will keep investing in different portfolio and to maximize my saving in order to have a contingency plan for the next 3 years.

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Narrative Essay: A Canoeing Adventure :: Personal Narrative Essays

A Canoeing Adventure    Although I was born in Texas, my father was transferred when I was just ten and I spent most of my impressionable years in a tiny village a few minutes from a national park.   This move to a rural area was an event that changed my life forever. Surrounded by beautiful forests and lakes, most of my free time was spent romping through the woods, navigating rivers in a canoe and camping in the many provincial parks nearby.    At the university, I came across a group of students who had never experienced "the great outdoors" before. Most of their lives had been spent in the hustle and bustle of big cities such as New York and Chicago. They wanted me to show them what it was that inspired me to head north every weekend with a truck packed to the brim with camping gear. I explained to them that the only way that they could experience my passion for nature would be to join me on one of my outings. They agreed, and I designed a four day canoeing/camping weekend for five men and two women in Algonquin Park, one of Canada's finest treasures. I felt that this trip was well planned (two months in the making). But once the trip was underway, it was evident that there were a lot of things that I hadn't planned for.    Four hours into the canoeing, our map blew out of the boat and could not be found. Our only compass was attached to it. Not having been on this river before, I had to navigate by instinct. This method takes considerably longer and nightfall was creeping up on us. Various hazzards such as beaver dams and unseasonably low water levels exhausted us as we pulled the canoes, rather than paddled them through these areas. Before we knew it, darkness had overtaken us and we were far from our designated campsite. The surrounding area was extremely marshy and I couldn't find any solid land. Taking a rope out of my bag, I lashed the three canoes together to form a raft and then anchored off for the night. The evening sky was clearer than I had ever seen it before. Sleeping in a canoe is far from comfortable, but accompanied by brilliant stars and the sounds of wolves howling from the nearby hilltops, not one person complained.

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Homer :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Homer’s epic, The Odyssey, women play an integral role in the life of Odysseus, the story’s protagonist. Odysseus is forced to leave the comforts of Ithaca because of a woman, Helen, and he longs to return to his home largely for a woman, his wife Penelope. Throughout his journey, however, it is Circe who has a heavy influence on Odysseus because she is a major distraction and thus an obstacle for the renowned hero. Indeed, Circe’s comeliness coupled with her sorcery, and her kindness along with lavish hospitality all distract Odysseus and impede him from swiftly returning home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With her otherworldly beauty and enchantments, Circe is a distraction for Odysseus and therefore an obstacle on his road to Ithaca. With her sensuality and magic potions, Circe is able to get that which she desires from men. After Odysseus, guided and forewarned by Hermes, drinks Circe’s potion and is not bewitched, Circe is â€Å"amazed† for â€Å"no other man has ever resisted† her magic (X, 348-350). Although Circe is probably used to fulfilling her sexual desires with men she has enchanted, she nevertheless tries to go to bed with Odysseus. She tells him, â€Å"Climb into my bed and tangle in love there, so we may come to trust each other† (X, 356-357). Odysseus tries to resist the charming goddess and tells her that she must promise no more â€Å"trouble† for him, but as soon as she does that which he asks he â€Å"[climbs] into Circe’s beautiful bed† (X, 366-369). After ten years of fighting, Odyssey has grown quite lonely. He has been away from Penelope, his wife and the only other woman who most likely fulfilled his needs and desires, and Circe is putting forth very tempting offers. Although her potion did not have an effect on him, Circe’s physical beauty definitely appealed to Odysseus; otherwise, he would have cunningly found something to do other than engaging in an intimate act with Circe. The goddess-nymph has many a trick up her sleeve, and she could have also found another way to get Odysseus to go to bed with her. She had no need to do such a thing because Odysseus was in a vulnerable state. Months at sea and at war can be quite trying on anyone, so Odysseus was susceptible to falling for someone--especially someone as seductive as Circe. With physical beauty and magical powers, Circe distracts Odysseus and hampers his return to Ithaca.

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

Violence: The Art Of Destruction Essay -- essays research papers fc

In today’s day and age, violence almost seems like a way of life. Aggression is the way to solve a problem, and the only way to make someone listen is to yell louder than them. Today is a day when it is alright to show a cold blooded murder on television or in a film. People enjoy seeing cartoon characters (namely Japanamation) kill each other and have graphic sex. Violence is everywhere and is almost impossible to escape and even more difficult to keep out of your life. However, in these times we must learn to live as part of society, and make meaningful contributions rather than just adding to the same heap of hate and aggression that animals are prone to and people should be above that stage in their life. People need to use reason to think out things before they say them and think even harder before they do some thing. Too many people do things in the heat of the moment. They hit their wives and children, shoot their classmates, give the finger to a car as it drives by, m indlessly watch murder and destruction on TV and in the theatres, and say things that they don’t mean in the passion of the altercation. These behaviors are destructive and bring about even more hate and nothing ever gets accomplished. War never came without a price. Far too many men were killed who never got to see their families again, and we are still so caught up in ourselves that we don’t see the suffering of the people around us. We get mad and angry and lash out with violence and hate because it’s all we know. Although we were taught from the dawn of our existence that violence isn’t the way to go, that doesn’t make it the less natural way to go. It is so much more natural to just punch the loser who hurt your feelings instead of turning the other cheek and walking away and being the bigger person. Being the bigger person is always harder, because it means maintaining dignity and pride even though you didn’t fight back which is what s ociety has come to expect from us. School Violence What seems to frighten me most lately is school violence. I am almost afraid to come into school because some kid my get the wrong idea and do something that they’ll regret. I feel that the school should be a safe place where one feels that they are safe and secure and not where they feel that their hall ways could become a battle ground any moment. These recent school shootings have also left me a... ..., it’s only a matter of time before that person will stand up for themselves in the only way that they know how to protect themselves, and that is with a gun. Stopping The Violence As one can see, there are many different kinds of violence. So what does one do about it? This is simple. Just live and create. If you see destruction, create over it. If you see violence and hatred, mend it and manipulate it into love. Where there is barrenness, make something grow. Especially, where there is love, embrace it. Share it with as many people as you can. Violence can only persist if we let it. Lets have one more World War, the War against violence and hatred. Instead of bombs we can use smiles and instead of guns we can use acceptance. The earth will be a battleground for God and the emblem on my shield will be Jesus. He started the battle, now lets finish the war. Works Cited The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness – Erich Fromm Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis – Albert Bandura Breaking the Cycle of Violence – Richard J. Hazler, Ph.D. Violence in America – Stephen Goode Reason and Violence - Sherman M. Stanage Bully/Victim Conflict: An Overview for Educators – Beverly B. Title, Ph.D.

Monday, September 16, 2019

Applications of Total Quality Management Essay

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a philosophy of management that strives to make the best use of all available resources and opportunities through continuous improvement. TQM means achieving quality in terms of all functions of the enterprise. Many researchers attempted to analyze how IT and TQM can jointly add value to organizations and the purpose of this first post on TQM is to evaluate the practicality of TQM in an IT service. In this evaluation, a balance of the service management needs with the reality of bottom-line effectiveness is provided. The post also provides a list of critical success factors to consider in a change management initiative engaged by an IT service. TQM in Practice : The essence of quality is to do it right the first time, and to satisfy customer requirements every time by involving everyone in the organization. The works of Crosby and his colleagues on the evolution of TQM cut across all pervasive philosophies of management. TQM has been a key business improvement strategy since the 1970s, as it has been deemed essential for improving efficiency and competitiveness. TQM aims to achieve an overall effectiveness which is higher than the individual outputs from the sub-systems such as design, planning, production, distribution, customer focus strategy, quality tools and employee involvement. This philosophy of management strives to make the best use of all available resources and opportunities through continuous improvement. As a management philosophy, TQM makes use of particular set of principles, practices, and techniques to expand business and profits and provides a bypass to enhanced productivity by avoiding rework, rejects, waste, customer complaints, and high cost. This can be achieved by emphasizing the organization’s commitment from data-driven, problem-solving approaches to quality accruing. The five basic pillars of TQM are : a) top management commitment for quality enhancement, b) customer centric advancements of processes and building a long-lasting trustworthy relationship between the organization and the customer, c) relentless development by setting goals and deadlines, d) benchmarking with several specific tools and quality-adding techniques, and e) strengthening the employee base by concentrating at any stage of a process on quality, where customer satisfaction is stationed. Table 1 provides a summary of the key dimensions that constitute TQM. TQM key dimensions : 1. Top management leadership : Top management commitment is one of the major determinants of successful TQM implementation. Top management has to be the first in applying and stimulating the TQM approach, and they have to accept the maximum responsibility for the product and service offering. Top management also has to provide the necessary leadership to motivate all employees. 2. Customer relationships : The needs of customers and consumers and their satisfaction should always be in the mind of all employees. It is necessary to identify these needs and their level of satisfaction. 3. Supplier relationships : Quality is a more important factor than price in selecting suppliers. Long-term relationship with suppliers has to be established and the company has to collaborate with suppliers to help improve the quality of products/services. 4. Workforce management : Workforce management has to be guided by the principles of: training, empowerment of workers and teamwork. Adequate plans of personnel recruitment and training have to be implemented and workers need the necessary skills to participate in the improvement process. 5. Product design process : All departments have to participate in the design process and work together to achieve a design that satisfies the requirements of the customer, which should be according to the technical, technological and cost constraints of the company. 6. Process flow management : Housekeeping along the lines of the 5S concept. Statistical and non-statistical improvement instruments should be applied as appropriate. Processes need to be mistake proof. Self-inspection undertaken using clear work instructions. The process has to be maintained under statistical control. 7. Quality data and reporting : Quality information has to be readily available and the information should be part of the visible management system. Records about quality indicators have to be kept, including scrap, rework, and cost of quality. TQM and Change Management Initiative for IT Performance : A business firm achieves world-class status when it has successfully developed operational capabilities through TQM to support the entire company in gaining a sustained overall performance over its competitors. Although there is insufficient statistical evidence to conclude significant simple relationships between TQM and IT services quality performance, many studies investigated the notion that TQM practices provide approaches to improve the economic position in the service sectors in general. Both IT and TQM had, and will continue to have a significant impact on most organizations. I only regret the lack of empirical research on the relationship between the two and how they both relate to business performance.

Administrative Law Notes Essay

Please note that this is a draft. The material is under revision. ?This material has been prepared by John P. Sangwa and was initially part of a larger study undertaken by the author. The material is meant for students studying L341. The reproduction for any purpose whatsoever of this work or any part thereof in any form or manner is not allowed without the permission of the author. What is Administrative Law? Administrative law, as a subject, has defied definite and concrete definition. Most scholars have confined themselves to formulating working definitions within the context of their works. There is, however, agreement that administrative law is concerned with powers and procedures for the use of those powers by public officers and institutions responsible for the performance of the functions of the state. It includes, especially, the law governing judicial review of administrative actions. Administrative law is law that governs those who administer any part of governmental activities. Administrative law is not the substantive law produced by the agencies, and it is not the substantive law created by the legislative bodies or courts and administered by the agencies; instead, administrative law is the law, which governs the powers and procedures of agencies. It includes procedural law created by the agencies but not the substantive law created by them, such as tax law, labour law, public utility law, transportation law, welfare law, town and country planning law, and the like. Administrative Law Distinguished from Constitutional Law There is a distinction between constitutional law and administrative law. Constitution law refers to the formal rules, in the case of Zambia, embodied in one single document referred to as the constitution, which establish the main institutions of the state, prescribe their powers, their relation with each other and their collective position vis-a-vis the citizens. Administrative law on the other hand focuses on the powers vested in these institutions and how they use them. For instance, the Banking and Financial Services Act, 1994, confers on the Bank of Zambia, the powers to regulate banking and regulated financial services and issue the necessary regulations from time to time. The Act itself and the regulations made pursuant thereto are not themselves of concern of administrative law. However, administrative law would touch on the authority of the Bank of Zambia to make regulations and upon the procedure employed in making them. Administrative law tends to focus on three aspects of administration: rule-making procedure, where the public institutions or officers are conferred powers to make rules, adjudicative procedure where there is power to make decisions and judicial review, which focuses on the power of the court to review decisions of public institution to ensure that they are intra-vires the empowering legal instruments, and to declare them ultra-vires, where they are not 2 The Scope and Administrative Law Administrative law is concerned with public authorities. It is concerned with the way power is acquired, where the public authorities get their powers from and the nature of those powers. It determines whether the exercise of a power subject to any particular procedure, or whether it must be exercised in any particular form. If so, it addresses the effect of failing to do so. It focuses on how to ensure that powers are used only for the purpose for which they are given – and that they are used effectively and efficiently. Administrative law is concerned not only with power but also with liabilities both of authorities and of their employees. It is concerned with the bodies, which exercise these powers – central government departments, public corporations, local authorities and other institutions. The role of the courts, as independent institutions, in providing some checks on the exercise of public powers is the concern of administrative law. The courts are concerned with the legality of the administrative actions. Administrative law must be seen as an instrument of control of the exercise of administrative powers. Administrative law, like any other branch of law is not an end in itself but means of getting things done by creating through the legal process, institutions, and granting them powers and imposing on them duties. The decision maker is subject to the law, but at the same time, he sees the law as something to use to achieve some end which society has chosen. Administrative law is a concern of a lawyer as much as for the public officers. There is need for public power, but there is also need for protection against its abuse. Administrative law attempts to address the age-old problem of abuse of power. Administrative law as discussed in this course is limited to law concerning powers, procedures, and judicial review. It does not include the enormous mass of substantive law produced by the various agencies. Although public institutions are created by statutes, by executive order authorised by statute, and by constitutional provisions, and although their principal powers and functions are normally defined by the instruments, which create them, the great bulk of administrative law is judge-made law. Some of the judge-made law either is or purports to be founded on constitutional or statutory interpretation. However, other judge-made law is made sometimes without reliance on either constitutional or statutory provisions. 3 SOURCES OF ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Introduction By sources we mean where one can look for answer whenever and administrative law issue arises. Administrative law is wherever law is. It is founded on the Constitution. It is in the statutes and in any form of statutory instrument. Administrative law is also in the form of common law made by the courts and in the form of procedural rules made by administrative agencies themselves. Constitution The entire Zambian Constitution is in a way a source of administrative law. It is a limitation on government. It creates various organs of government and prescribes what they may or may not do and how they can do what they are empowered to do. For instance, Article 30 of the Constitution confers power upon the President to declare, after consultations with Cabinet, that a state of public emergency exists in Zambia. The said provision puts a limitation on the exercise of this power by the President. The President can declare a state of emergency only after he has consulted with Cabinet. Failure to do so may render such a declaration null and void. Whether or not there has been compliance with the provisions of the constitution or whether the power has been exercised for the intended purposes is the concern of administrative law. Statutes Very often statutes, which create public institutions, prescribe their powers and how they are to be exercised. It is the concern of administrative law to ensure that such powers are used for the realisation of the policy objectives on which in the statute is founded and not any other goals. Common Law The common law is creation of the courts. Following the concept of staredecisis, courts will decide a case today in the same way they decided in other cases in the past if comparable factual situations are involves. There is therefore a huge volume of guidelines on how the courts will decide a given case and this collection of clues is called common law. Common law prevails on a point of law so long as there is no statute, regulation, or constitutional provision, which contradicts it. Judicial interpretations of statutes, regulations, and constitutional provisions are part of the common law. Much of the administrative law principles are in the form of common law. Formal laws do not regulate every aspect of administrative authority. For instance, the idea that no one should be punished unheard is law, which has been embraced by the courts as one of the common law principles. 4 Much of what is administrative based on the constitution is in fact common law. The Constitution is brief and at times vague. It is therefore, interpreted by the courts. It is in sense good that the Constitution is sometimes vague. This enables the each generation to interpreter it to accommodate social, political and other changes Administrative Instruments Some of the instruments with the force of law, which regulate public institutions, are made by the institutions themselves. This kind of law is imposed on the institutions by the public institutions themselves. It is often in response to public pressure and public expectations exerted in different ways throughout the political process. For instance, the Industrial and Labour Relations Act has created the Industrial Relations Court. In order to ensure that people have access to the Court and receive fair hearing the Court has set its own rules, binding on itself and parties to the dispute, who have moved the Court. The rules, which the public institutions impose upon themselves, are often found in the same statute along with other rules and regulations made by the institutions. For instance, in 1996, the President issued a directive that housing units owned by the government and local authorities be sold to sitting tenants. A circular to that effect was issued by Cabinet govern this exercise. Any dispute in this regard has been resolved by referring to this circular. As for the units owned by local authorities, the Ministry of Local Government and Housing issued a similar circular. The first phase began from the moment British influence was established in the territory, which became known as Northern Rhodesia. The second phase, began long after the first phase had been properly grounded, focuses on judicial review; and the dominant part of judicial review is constitutional and statutory interpretation. Whereas other Western countries have already gone through the third phase, which focuses on procedures for formal adjudication and formal rule making, Zambia is just embarking on this phase. 9The value of such an approach is ably illustrated by Gordon R. Woodman, â€Å"Constitutions in a World of Powerful Semi-Autonomous Social Fields†, Third World Legal Studies – 1989, 120. He observes at pp. 2-3. : Although the skills of a lawyer are useful in the study of non-state laws, an adequate appreciation requires some revision of the traditional approach of students of state law. It is necessary to discard the concepts and axioms induced by the tendency o f state laws to deny the legitimacy of other laws†¦. An effective state constitutional order takes account of the social realities which affect its objects and functioning. In Africa, where the relative unimportance of state law is at least as marked as anywhere else, other social orderings cannot realistically be overlooked. 39 The Development of Administrative Structures Zambia is a product of greed and conquest by the powerful, and of the weak seeking a haven for peace and security. The dispersal from the north, which involved the Lozi, Bemba, Lunda and other tribes, was largely precipitated by smaller chieftaincies seeking independence. However, the migration of the Ngoni and the Kololo from the south was for the search of a sanctuary. The coming of Europeans brought another dimension to the history of Territory. Their conquest of the Territory was for economic reasons: to find raw materials to keep the wheels of the factories in Europe turning and good land to settle the landless people of Europe. The realisation of the economic objective was possible only if both internal and external threats to British presence in the area were taken care of. The internal threats were addressed through the power of the pen, like in the case of the Litunga of Barotseland, and through the power of the sword as against the Ngoni. The motivating force was the greed of the private entrepreneurs. The role of the Imperial Government was merely that of protecting the interests of its citizens when threatened by another imperial power or forces within the Territory. The history of Northern Rhodesia is also a history of two competing cultures, one claiming superiority over the other. The Europeans came with new ideas about social formations. All the existing tribal groupings were broken down and made part of one heterogeneous society curved out of the entire continent without regard to history, customs and origins. The impact of Western colonial rule is still indelibly imprinted in Zambia decades after independence. As Europeans moved into the non-Western world, north of the Zambezi, as traders, merchants, missionaries and adventurers, they carried with them expectations that all societies should be properly organised as states possessing attributes of sovereignty and adhering to rule of law. 0 This was not the case in the area, which became known as Northern Rhodesia. After the establishment of settlements, Europeans insisted that human relations, and more particularly the management of disputes, should fall under explicit and universally based laws. 21 To make life much more amiable 20Lucian W. Pye, â€Å"Law and the Dilemma of Stability and Change in the Modernization Process,† Vanderbilt Law Review 17 (1963), 24-25. 21Ibid. 40 they started building the state structures. The administrative structures, which emerged, made up the constitutional structures for the Territory. 2 The Making of Northern Rhodesia As a geographical unit, Zambia was created through the initiative of Britain during the partition of Africa. Following the examples of other European powers at the time in staking claims to large territories in the Africa, Britain was keen to extend sovereignty north of South Africa. Little effort was necessary to persuade the Crown to grant John Cecil Rhodes, at his request, a Charter incorporating the British South Africa Company, which was to pursue British interests in the area. This Charter was granted in 1889. The Charter empowered the Company to acquire territories through concessions, agreements and treaties by or with indigenous rulers and administer it – without any financial assistance from the British Government. The Company’s field of operation was defined to be the territory north of the Crown colony of British Bechuanaland and of the Transvaal and west of the Portuguese possessions in East Africa. Rhodes sent agents to conclude treaties with local rulers. Through such treaties and conquests of the more militant tribes, Rhodes effectively asserted his, and ultimately British presence. It now remained for Britain to secure the agreements of other European powers in accordance with the terms of the Berlin conference of 1884 – 1885. This was done through a series of treaties, which collectively determined the present border of Zambia. The name â€Å"Rhodesia† was first used to refer to the territories (obtained by Rhodes) in 1895. It was officially approved in 1897, by the British Government. In 1895, due to its vastness the territory was, administratively, divided by the BSA Company into two: North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia. Both of them were being administered by the Company under the supervision of the British High Commissioners in South Africa and Nysaland respectively. At the time, a few outposts of administration were being established in the sparsely populated territories. In 1899 and 1900, two very important Orders in council were promulgated. The Orders, the Barotse North-Western Rhodesia Order in council and the North-Eastern Rhodesia Order in council, clarified the provisions relating to 22See H. F. Morris and J. S. Read, â€Å"Indirect Rule and the Search for justice†, (1972), 287, quoted n Filip Reyjents, â€Å"Authoritarianism in Francophone Africa from the Colonial to the Post Colonial State†, Third World legal Studies – 1988, p. 59. 41 the administration of the two territories to which they referred and also established the territories as â€Å"colonial protectorates†. Under the North-Eastern Rhodesia Order in Council, 1900 North Eastern Rhodesia was to be admin istered by an ‘administrator’, appointed by the Company with the approval of the Secretary of State for Colonies. The administrator was empowered to make regulations for the administration of justice, the raising of revenue and generally for â€Å"†¦ he peace order and good government†. These regulations had to be approved by Her Majesty’s Commissioner for the British Central African Protectorate (Nyasaland now Malawi) and could be disallowed by the Secretary of State. The Commissioner himself could initiate legislation termed â€Å"Queen’s Regulations†. Under the North-Western Rhodesia Order in Council, 1899, the British Government retained firmer control in North-Western Rhodesia through the High Commissioner in South Africa because of the unresolved issue of the western border of the territory with the Portuguese territory of Angola. The issue was not resolved until 1905. The High Commissioner had the power to legislate by proclamation. The Company had administrative powers, which were exercise through an administrator. Developments in the two areas indicated that they would best be administered as one territory. In 1911, Barotse North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia were merged to form Northern Rhodesia. The Company retained its administrative authority in the new territory. It was empowered to appoint an administrator for the territory, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State. The legislative authority, which was to be exercised by proclamations, remained in the High Commissioner in South Africa. This arrangements prevailed until 1924 when company rule was terminated. Administration of Justice (a) Developments Under Company Rule: The major concern of the settlers was to establish structures for the settlement of disputes. Amongst the first institutions to be established in the territory were the courts. The major task of the Company was to establish the basic instruments of government administration. The judicial functions of the government were undeveloped. Nonetheless, the legislative framework for the establishment of courts was already in existence. The Africa Order in Council of 1889, provided that every person holding Her Majesty’s Commission as a Consul-General should, if so authorised by the Secretary of State, form a consular court. This Order in Council even provided a code for criminal and civil procedure. In the event, it was not found 42 necessary to establish any consular courts as reliance was placed upon the second method of establishing courts: the Charter of the British South Africa Company itself. One of the fundamental principles which was to be respected in the administration of justice was the need to differentiate between the indigenous people and the immigrants. Section 14 of the Charter directed the Company to have â€Å"careful regard† to the laws and customs of the local tribes. Thus, the courts which were established were limited in their jurisdictions to give effect to this principle. Between 1899 and 1909, two hierarchies of courts were established in Barotse North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia. Each consisted of a High Court, Magistrates’ courts, the Administrator’s Court and Native Commissioners Courts. The High Courts were courts of unlimited jurisdiction and administered English law and local enactment, except in civil cases between Africans, when they were required to administer African customary law. The Administrators’ Courts also had similar jurisdiction as the High Court. They were introduced to enable the Administrators of the territories to have a role in the administration of justice. The Magistrates’ Courts were courts of first instance with limited jurisdiction. They were mainly concerned with adjudicating over disputes between white settlers and with administering criminal law. The law administered in these courts was English law. The Native Commissioners’ courts were established in order to administer African customary law between natives. All the judges and the members of the other courts were nominated by the Company but appointed by the British High Commissioner in South Africa. They were amenable to dismissal as well. Although existing African traditional courts were not officially recognised, some limited protection was extended to customary law. First by the Barotse North-Western Rhodesia Order 1899 and later by the North-Eastern Rhodesia Order 1900, which for the first time invoked the repugnancy clause. This clause provided that customary law be to be administered so far it was not â€Å"repugnant to natural justice or morality† or to any statutory law. Two systems of courts were established in each of the two territories by 1909. One system administered English law and statutory law between Europeans in civil cases. It also administered English penal law for all the inhabitants of the territory. The other system administered African customary law in civil cases between Africans. In 1911, when it was decided to combine North-Western Rhodesia and NorthEastern Rhodesia into a single country, it also became necessary to re-organise 3 the judicial system. However, as there also existed two well-established judicial systems, few changes were necessary beyond merging the two systems into one. There emerged a High Court of unlimited original and appellate jurisdiction, magistrates’ courts and native commissioners’ courts. The Administrator’s court was abolished. High Court judges were henceforth appointed by the Secretary of State in Britain. The officers in lower courts were appointed by the Company. Between 1911 and 1924, only minor changes effected to the judicial system and none of these affected the judicial system or its basic structure. b) Developments During Direct British Administration: During the early part of the 1920’s it became apparent, Northern Rhodesia was becoming too costly and complicated a territory to be administered by a company. In 1924, the company relinquished its powers in favour of direct British rule. The 1911 Northern Rhodesia Order was revoked and in its place was promulgated the Northern Rhodesia Order in Council, 1924 and the Northern Rhodesia (Legislative Council) Order in Council, 1924, and the Royal Instructions to the Governor of 1924. These three documents together constituted the basic constitutional instruments of Northern Rhodesia. The Northern Rhodesia Order established the office of Governor, to represent the Crown. He was assisted by an executive council, the members of which were appointed by the Crown and served at his pleasure. In accordance with the â€Å"colonial protectorate† status of the territory, constituent power remained in the Crown and was exercised through Orders in Council made under the Foreign Jurisdictions Acts of 1890 and 1913. However, for the purpose of enacting laws to facilitate the administration of the country, a legislative council, dominated by (appointed) officials, was established. This council exercised its legislative power through the enactment of ordinances. The change from company rule to direct British rule did not necessitate radical changes to the judicial system. The changes made merely reflected change-over to colonial rule. The power to determine the number of judges and magistrates in the country and to appoint them subject, in the case of judges, to such instructions as the Crown might give was vested in the Governor. There were also provisions permitting appeals from the High Court to the Privy Council. In 1938, it was decided to establish a court of appeal for the three British colonies in central Africa, comparable to the East African Court of Appeal and Court of Appeal for West Africa. This Court was called the Court of Appeal 44 for Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The court was established under Ordinance No. 35 of 1938. It became the highest court for the three territories in criminal cases but provisions were included for further appeals to the Privy Council in civil cases. Meanwhile, the important issue of how best to administer the affairs of Africans was receiving much attention. It was decided soon after the assumption of direct British administration to extend the famous principles of indirect rule, to the territory. This principle, which had already been applied in other British colonies, entailed the use of existing African institutions to effect colonial rule, thereby minimizing both the antagonism of the people and expenditure. Indirect rule was implemented in Northern Rhodesia by establishing native authorities and recognising native courts. Native authorities were established in all areas of the territory nd were vested with minimal local government powers such as taxation and policing. Native courts were first recognised by statute in 1929, with the enactment of the Native Courts Ordinance. Under this ordinance, the Governor was empowered to constitute any â€Å"chief, headman, elder or council of elders† in any area into a native court. This did not, however, prevent the exercise of judicial powers by those who already did so in their own com munities. The Native Courts established under this Ordinance were separate from the rest of the judiciary: the High Court and the magistrates’ courts. No appeals lay from the Native Courts to the Magistrates’ Court or to the High Court. Nevertheless, there were already in existence some Native Commissioner’s Courts. These assumed the role of appellate courts in relation to the Native Courts. Native courts were only empowered to administer customary law and to adjudicate over civil cases in which the parties included Africans. In 1936, it was deemed necessary to clarify the status and jurisdictional limitation of native courts. This was done by the enactment of the Native Courts Ordinance 1936 and the Barotse Native Courts Ordinance 1936. Apart from these changes, which enabled the Government to establish a number of native courts covering the whole territory, this system of administering justice remained in force until 1966. (c) Developments During the Federation of Rhodesia and Nysaland: Even before the Second World War, two issues were to dominate Northern Rhodesian politics and determine its constitutional development: the demand by African nationalists for majority rule and/or self-determination and the campaign by white settlers for closer association or amalgamation with 45 Southern Rhodesia. As early as 1929, the Hilton Young Commission advised that: In the present state of communications the main interests of Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia, economic and political, lie not in association with the eastern African territories, but rather with the self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia. In 1938, the Bledisloe Commission was appointed to â€Å"explore the feasibility of closer association between the two Rhodesias and Nyasaland. † The Commission also endorsed the idea of closer association between the three territories, but did not recommend immediate steps in that irection. Nonetheless, consultations continued between white politicians in Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia and the British Government. Finally, at a conference held at Victoria Falls, in Northern Rhodesia, in 1951, a firm decision was arrived at recommending to the British Government the establishment of a federation in Central Africa. This recommendation was accepted. The Federation of Rhodes ia and Nyasaland Act, enacted by the British Parliament in 1953, authorised the Queen to establish such a federation. In the same year, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Constitution) Order in Council joined the three territories to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Under the federal scheme, the three territories retained their respective statuses: Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland remained protectorates, while Southern Rhodesia remained a colony. The Constitution provided for the office of a Governor-General, appointed by the Crown. He was the personal representative of the Crown. The Constitution also established a federal legislature of thirty-five members. This body had legislative power over certain matters exclusive of the territorial legislatures (the federal legislative list) and powers to legislate over other matters concurrently with the territorial legislatures. The establishment of the Federation had one important effect upon the judicial system of Zambia. The Federal Constitution established a Federal Supreme Court. The Court consisted of the Chief Justice, appointed by the Governor-General and between two and six judges, who were to include the Chief Justices of the three territories. Under Article 53 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court had exclusive jurisdiction over matters relating to the interpretation of the Constitution and matters in which the Federal Government was a party. The Supreme Court also had appellate jurisdiction from the High Courts of the three territories. Article 61 provided for appeals from the Supreme Court to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. 46 The idea of establishing the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was not supported by all the sectors of the population. The Africans of Northern Rhodesia, in particular, had vehemently opposed any form of association with Southern Rhodesia. Instead, they had campaigned for reforms to the electoral law to introduce universal adult suffrage. As African political parties were formed Africans began to demand self-government and independence from British rule. The decade 1953 to 1963 was volatile in Northern Rhodesia. The many factors of that era culminated in a general election, based on â€Å"one man one vote†, in 1962, which was won by the United National Independence Party, led by Kenneth Kaunda. He formed a coalition government with the African National Congress in 1963. The Federation was dissolved in that year. In 1964, under yet another constitution, fresh elections were held which were won outright by the United National Independence Party. This Party formed the first Government when Northern Rhodesia was granted independence in October 1964. (d) Developments After Independence: The new constitution provided for a popularly elected executive President who was also the Head of State. It also provided for a Vice-President and a cabinet appointed from among the members of the National Assembly. The legislative power was vested in a Parliament consisting of the President and single chamber National Assembly. The Assembly consisted of seventy-five elected members, not more than five nominated members nominated by the President and a Speaker. The legislative power was exercised through Bills passed by the National Assembly and assented to by the President. Enactments were termed â€Å"Acts of Parliament†. Quite expectedly, independence brought about some changes in the judicial system of Zambia. The dissolution of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ended the Federal Supreme Court. Within Zambia, the January 1964 Constitution established a Court of Appeal with unlimited appellate jurisdiction. The Independence Constitution also provided for a Court of Appeal consisting the Chief Justice, one Justice of Appeal and other puisne judges. The Constitution also empowered the President to declare that the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council should be an appeal court for the Republic. The President never exercised this power and the provision was not repeated in the 1973 Constitution. The Independence Constitution created a Judicial Service Commission under the chairmanship of the Chief Justice. The Constitution conferred advisory and executive functions over appointments to judicial offices upon the 7 commission. The provisions relating to the Judicial Service Commission were substantially retained under the 1973 constitution. The subordinate courts were retained by and large in their old form even after independence. Various aspects of the Subordinate Courts had undergone changes since the enactment of the Subordinate Courts Act in 1934. The changes related mostly to jurisdi ction and other related matters, and did not affect the basic structure and status of these courts. After 1964, the notable change was in the manner of appointing magistrates. They were to be appointed by the Judicial Service Commission. Some radical changes were made at the level of the Native Courts. The general feeling at the time was that Native Courts had to be integrated in the judiciary. The first step came in the form of provision that appointments of the Native Courts’ presiding justices were henceforth to be made by the Judicial Service Commission. Meanwhile, initiatives were underway for the enactment of a new statute to provide for Native Courts. The Local Courts Act was enacted in 1966. It repealed the Native Courts Ordinance and the Barotse Native Courts Ordinance. It constituted Local Courts in place of Native Courts. It provided for appeals from Local Courts to Magistrates’ Courts. The 1966 Local Courts Act was aimed at integrating the Local Courts into the judiciary to produce one hierarchy of courts instead of two. The introduction of the one-party system did not bring about major changes in the judicial system of Zambia. It did, however, bring about one important change. The Court of Appeal was abolished and in its place, a Supreme Court was established. Very little has changed in the judiciary even after the introduction of the Constitution of 1991. The same is true even after the enactment of the Constitution amendment Act No. 18 of 1996. Before concluding this part, it is important to summarise the judicial system in place today. The Supreme Court of Zambia, established under Article 91 of the Constitution is the highest court in the country. It is a court of unlimited appellate jurisdiction. It consists of the Chief Justice, the Deputy Chief Justice and seven appeal judges or such greater number as may be prescribed in an Act of Parliament. The High Court of Zambia is the second highest court. It is a court of unlimited original and appellate jurisdiction, except for matters specifically reserved for the Industrial and Labour Relations Court and has original jurisdiction over all civil and criminal matters. The High Court consists of the Chief Justice (ex-officio) and such number of puisne judges as may be determined in an Act of Parliament. The High Court also has supervisory powers over all proceedings in all the courts subordinate to it. 48 The Constitutional Amendment Act No. 18 of 1996 has introduced an interesting development in the number of courts for the Republic. The Industrial Relations, which was from its inception a tribunal is now, became part of the Judicature of Zambia. The real benefits of this change are hard to see, but the most immediate problem has been confusion between the powers of the High Court and that of the Industrial Relations. Furthermore, whereas the role of the Industrial Relations Court is to do substantial justice, there is a steady departure from this guiding principle. The Industrial Relations Court has become more and more legalistic in its determination of cases although, as an institution, is it ill-equipped for this role. Cases are determined not on the basis of the facts of the case or in order to do substantial justice, but because there are legal precedents to that effect especially those from the Supreme Court. The other courts down the hierarchy are the subordinate courts. These are provided for under the Subordinate Courts Act. They are presided over by magistrates. Both the courts and the magistrates are divided into classes, and the relationship of the various classes of magistrates to the various classes of subordinate courts is clearly stated by Section 3 of the Act. There shall be and are hereby constituted courts subordinate to the High Court in each district as follows: (i) A Subordinate Court of the first class to be presided over by a Senior Resident magistrate, Resident Magistrate or a magistrate of the first class; (ii) a Subordinate Court of the second class to be presided over by a magistrate of the second class; (iii)a Subordinate Court of the third class to be presided over by a magistrate of the third class. The jurisdiction of each subordinate court is limited both territorially and substantively on a graduating scale depending on the class of the court and the magistrate. Subordinate courts also have appellate jurisdiction to hear appeals from local courts. Finally, at the bottom of the hierarchy of courts are the Local Courts, established under the Local Courts Act 1966. They are presided over by Local Court presidents. Their jurisdiction is limited both territorially and in terms of the substantive law. With regard to the latter, the statute provides that they may only administer African customary law and such other statutory laws as may be explicitly extended to them.